Guardians of Legacy: Foundations, Philanthropy, and the Silent Architects of Cultural Power
Executive summary by Rui-Long Monico of the proceedings of the seminar entitled “Cultural Philanthropy and the Law,” delivered by Anne Laure Bandle, lecturer at the Faculty of Law, University of Geneva. Published on June 15, 2020.
Philanthropy Beyond Altruism
The philanthropic support of culture has evolved significantly over the last two centuries, transforming from charitable patronage to a sophisticated web of legal, fiscal, and ideological structures. Central to this evolution is the role of foundations—particularly in Switzerland and the United States—as vehicles through which individuals, notably women and artists, have shaped public culture, safeguarded legacies, and wielded soft power.
The Quiet Vanguard: Women, Patronage, and the Aesthetic Public Sphere
Long before enfranchisement granted women political voice, they exerted significant influence through acts of cultural benevolence. As history Professor Kathleen D. McCarthy notes, “philanthropic endeavors—giving, voluntarism, and social reform—provided the primary means through which the majority of middle- and upper-class women fashioned their public roles” (McCarthy, 1991). These endeavors were not merely outlets for moral duty, but strategic platforms through which women shaped institutions and ideologies.
Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney and Abby Aldrich Rockefeller emerge as luminous figures in this tradition. Their founding of institutions like the Whitney Museum and the Museum of Modern Art was not an act of passive patronage, but a reconfiguration of cultural authority. Whitney, described as “the disaffected child of luxury and wealth,” converted personal rebellion into artistic institution-building. Her support of the Ashcan School and independent exhibitions allowed marginalized voices to enter the canon of American art.
This phenomenon also marks a gendered inversion of 19th-century values: while male individualism waned under bureaucratic modernity, female individualism gained ascendancy. The post-suffrage era enabled women like Whitney not only to champion avant-garde art but to professionalize their cultural authority. As McCarthy argues, “female individualism became one of the leitmotivs of the Jazz Age” (McCarthy, 1991).
The Diplomatic Aesthetics of Empire: Foundations and the Cold War Cultural Front
Philanthropy became an ideological apparatus in the hands of post-war American foundations. The Ford Foundation, formed in the crucible of Progressivism, enshrined technical rationality and policy-driven benevolence. Its mission to fund the humanities abroad was not merely an altruistic gesture, but a soft power strategy. As articulated in internal documents, such programs were meant to be “weapons in the Cold War quest for the hearts and minds of men” (McCarthy, 1987).
In India, for example, Ford responded to the vacuum left by British colonial exit and the ideological threat posed by Soviet literature. The Foundation, in concert with the State Department, initiated the “Books for India” program to distribute literature reflecting democratic traditions. “Cultural support seemed well suited to the task of reaching foreign intellectuals,” (McCarthy, 1987) McCarthy explains, especially as American visual art faced political resistance at home.
Ford’s cultural outreach culminated in exhibitions that included works by Jackson Pollock, Ben Shahn, and Yasuo Kuniyoshi. The impact was twofold: to rehabilitate America’s image abroad and to elevate modern American art as globally legitimate. As Robert Maynard Hutchins famously stated, “war would be less likely if people from different countries understood each other better” (McCarthy, 1987).
The Alchemy of Law: Swiss Jurisprudence and the Architecture of Cultural Foundations
The Swiss legal framework provides fertile ground for the cultivation of philanthropic structures. With over 450 foundations established annually, Switzerland is often considered a “paradis des fondations” (Mueller, 2017). Its foundation law permits a wide latitude of purpose, limited primarily by the criteria of public utility: general interest and disinterestedness.
As tax law Professor Giedre Lideikyte Huber articulates, this legal generosity is tempered by principles of competitive neutrality and fiscal rigor. A foundation may undertake commercial activity only when it serves as a means to a higher public good, remains secondary, or is ring-fenced through subsidiary entities. Swiss tax authorities mandate separation of profit-generating and nonprofit activities to ensure that philanthropic entities do not distort market competition or misuse tax exemptions.
The flexibility of the Swiss foundation structure—allowing both inter vivos and testamentary formations—makes it an attractive instrument for collectors, artists, and estates. It allows individuals to ensure continuity of mission and control over artistic vision while providing legal permanence and tax benefits.
Artists as Architects of Immortality
The artist as philanthropist is a modern archetype, emerging from the tension between ephemeral creation and enduring legacy. Many artists, bereft of heirs or seeking to control posthumous interpretation, have established foundations as custodians of their intellectual and artistic estates. As lawyer Anne Laure Bandle notes, “the legal structure allows the creation and maintenance of a certain agenda regarding the management of the artist’s legacy” (Bandle).
Examples abound: the Fondation Félix Vallotton, Fondation Zao Wou-Ki, and Fondation CHU Teh-Chun illustrate how foundations can preserve, exhibit, and extend the oeuvre of artists beyond the grave. Some, like the Fondation René Burri, were initiated during the artist’s lifetime, while others, such as the Fondation Anne Cuneo, were established by testamentary decree.
The structure serves manifold functions: management of copyrights, issuance of certificates of authenticity, maintenance of catalogues raisonnés, and support for exhibitions and publications. However, as Bandle warns, these activities can approach commercial thresholds that threaten tax-exempt status. Foundations must be vigilant in delineating between public interest and market engagement.
The Legacy Equation: Inheritance Law and Cultural Succession
Succession in the artistic domain is not merely legal but ideological. Swiss inheritance law, governed by the Civil Code, allows testamentary freedom within the bounds of compulsory shares. Artists may bequeath their works, impose conditions, or found institutions. However, reserved portions for legal heirs impose structural constraints on how an estate may be allocated.
In cases where artistic legacies are substantial, the choice between donation, auction, or institutional transfer involves complex valuation and ethical considerations. The transformation of private collections into foundations, as seen in the collections of Bührle or Reinhart, enables continuity while maintaining curatorial coherence.
The case of Courbet’s Paysage du Jura, donated to the Canton of Jura, exemplifies these complexities. Although absent from known catalogues, art historians confirmed its authenticity. Legal evaluations found no impediment to accepting the work, provided due diligence—including provenance checks in Nazi-looted art databases—was observed.
Ethical Curatorship and the Burden of Legacy
The rise of private cultural foundations has intensified scrutiny over provenance, accountability, and the moral economy of collecting. The ICOM Code of Ethics emphasizes transparency, responsible acquisition, and public stewardship. Foundations are bound by these principles, particularly when dealing with artworks of ambiguous origin or politically sensitive histories.
UNESCO conventions and UNIDROIT guidelines provide legal scaffolding for the ethical restitution of stolen or illicitly exported cultural goods. As stated in the UNIDROIT Convention, the return of stolen cultural property must be accompanied by due diligence and equitable indemnity, provided the possessor acted in good faith.
Moreover, as foundations increasingly shape art historical canons through catalogues raisonnés and market validation, their authority must be interrogated. While not legally bound, these institutions function as de facto arbiters of authenticity and value. The ethical line between stewardship and monopoly is thin, and institutional integrity demands vigilance.
The Edifice of Memory
Cultural philanthropy, especially through foundations, has become a pillar of contemporary heritage governance. Drawing exclusively from empirical and juridical evidence contained in the archival sources, this inquiry has illuminated the mechanisms through which private actors assume public roles.
From the strategic diplomacy of the Ford Foundation to the generative legacies of artists like Whitney and Warhol, the philanthropic act is seldom neutral. It is a curated gesture, often shaped by personal grief, social ambition, ideological allegiance, or historical redress. The foundation, in this sense, is both a legal form and a metaphysical structure—an edifice of memory erected in the civic realm.
As cultural institutions evolve and global awareness intensifies around provenance, access, and equity, philanthropic entities must navigate a labyrinth of legal, ethical, and existential imperatives. Yet their central mission remains unchanged: to preserve not just objects, but meanings, identities, and futures. In doing so, they do not merely reflect culture; they remake it.
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